Thioflavin derivatives for use in antemortem diagnosis of alzheimer`s disease and in vivo imaging and prevention of amyloid deposition

ABSTRACT

This invention relates to novel thioflavin derivatives, methods of using the derivatives in, for example, in vivo imaging of patients having neuritic plaques, pharmaceutical compositions comprising the thioflavin derivatives and method of synthesizing the compounds. The compounds find particular use in the diagnosis and treatment of patients having diseases where accumulation of neuritic plaques are prevalent. The disease states or maladies include but are not limited to Alzheimer&#39;s disease, familial Alzheimer&#39;s disease, Down&#39;s Syndrome and homozygotes for the apolipoprotein E4 allele.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED PATENT APPLICATIONS

This is a continuation application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/971,889, filed Dec. 17, 2010, which is a continuation application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/828,554 filed Jul. 26, 2007, which is a continuation application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/388,173, filed Mar. 14, 2003, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/935,767, filed Aug. 24, 2001, which claims priority to U.S. Patent Application 60/227,601, filed Aug. 24, 2000, all of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to specific thioflavin derivatives that are suitable for imaging amyloid deposits in living patients. More specifically, the present invention relates to a method of imaging amyloid deposits in brain in vivo to allow antemortem diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease with thioflavin derivatives. The present invention also relates to therapeutic uses for such compounds.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Alzheimer's Disease (“AD”) is a neurodegenerative illness characterized by memory loss and other cognitive deficits. McKhann et al., Neurology 34: 939 (1984). It is the most common cause of dementia in the United States. AD can strike persons as young as 40-50 years of age, yet, because the presence of the disease is difficult to determine without dangerous brain biopsy, the time of onset is unknown. The prevalence of AD increases with age, with estimates of the affected population reaching as high as 40-50% by ages 85-90. Evans et al., JAMA 262: 2551 (1989); Katzman, Neurology 43: 13 (1993).

In practice, AD is definitively diagnosed through examination of brain tissue, usually at autopsy. Khachaturian, Arch. Neurol. 42: 1097 (1985); McKhann et al., Neurology 34: 939 (1984). Neuropathologically, this disease is characterized by the presence of neuritic plaques (NP), neurofibrillary tangles (NFT), and neuronal loss, along with a variety of other findings. Mann, Mech. Ageing Dev. 31: 213 (1985). Post-mortem slices of brain tissue of victims of Alzheimer's disease exhibit the presence of amyloid in the form of proteinaceous extracellular cores of the neuritic plaques that are characteristic of AD.

The amyloid cores of these neuritic plaques are composed of a protein called the β-amyloid (Aβ) that is arranged in a predominately beta-pleated sheet configuration. Mori et al., Journal of Biological Chemistry 267: 17082 (1992); Kirschner et al., PNAS 83: 503 (1986). Neuritic plaques are an early and invariant aspect of the disease. Mann et al., J. Neurol. Sci. 89: 169; Mann, Mech. Ageing Dev. 31: 213 (1985); Terry et al., J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol 46: 262 (1987).

The initial deposition of Aβ probably occurs long before clinical symptoms are noticeable. The currently recommended “minimum microscopic criteria” for the diagnosis of AD is based on the number of neuritic plaques found in brain. Khachaturian, Arch. Neurol., supra (1985). Unfortunately, assessment of neuritic plaque counts must be delayed until after death.

Amyloid-containing neuritic plaques are a prominent feature of selective areas of the brain in AD as well as Down's Syndrome and in persons homozygous for the apolipoprotein E4 allele who are very likely to develop AD. Corder et al., Science 261: 921 (1993); Divry, P., J. Neurol. Psych. 27: 643-657 (1927); Wisniewski et al., in Zimmerman, H. M. (ed.): PROGRESS IN NEUROPATHOLOGY (Grune and Stratton, N.Y. 1973) pp. 1-26.

Brain amyloid is readily demonstrated by staining brain sections with thioflavin S or Congo red. Puchtler et al., J. Histochem. Cytochem. 10: 35 (1962). Congo red stained amyloid is characterized by a dichroic appearance, exhibiting a yellow-green polarization color. The dichroic binding is the result of the beta-pleated sheet structure of the amyloid proteins. Glenner, G. N. Eng. J. Med. 302: 1283 (1980). A detailed discussion of the biochemistry and histochemistry of amyloid can be found in Glenner, N. Eng. J. Med., 302: 1333 (1980).

Thus far, diagnosis of AD has been achieved mostly through clinical criteria evaluation, brain biopsies and post-mortem tissue studies. Research efforts to develop methods for diagnosing Alzheimer's disease in vivo include (1) genetic testing, (2) immunoassay methods and (3) imaging techniques.

Evidence that abnormalities in Aβ metabolism are necessary and sufficient for the development of AD is based on the discovery of point mutations in the Aβ precursor protein in several rare families with an autosomal dominant form of AD. Hardy, Nature Genetics 1: 233 (1992); Hardy et al., Science 256: 184 (1992). These mutations occur near the N- and C-terminal cleavage points necessary for the generation of Aβ from its precursor protein. St. George-Hyslop et al., Science 235: 885 (1987); Kang et al., Nature 325: 733 (1987); Potter WO 92/17152. Genetic analysis of a large number of AD families has demonstrated, however, that AD is genetically heterogeneous. St. George-Hyslop et al., Nature 347: 194 (1990). Linkage to chromosome 21 markers is shown in only some families with early-onset AD and in no families with late-onset AD. More recently a gene on chromosome 14 whose product is predicted to contain multiple transmembrane domains and resembles an integral membrane protein has been identified by Sherrington et al., Nature 375: 754-760 (1995). This gene may account for up to 70% of early-onset autosomal dominant AD. Preliminary data suggests that this chromosome 14 mutation causes an increase in the production of Aβ. Scheuner et al., Soc. Neurosci. Abstr. 21: 1500 (1995). A mutation on a very similar gene has been identified on chromosome 1 in Volga German kindreds with early-onset AD. Levy-Lahad et al., Science 269: 973-977 (1995).

Screening for apolipoprotein E genotype has been suggested as an aid in the diagnosis of AD. Scott, Nature 366: 502 (1993); Roses, Ann. Neurol. 38: 6-14 (1995). Difficulties arise with this technology, however, because the apolipoprotein E4 allele is only a risk factor for AD, not a disease marker. It is absent in many AD patients and present in many non-demented elderly people. Bird, Ann. Neurol. 38: 2-4 (1995).

Immunoassay methods have been developed for detecting the presence of neurochemical markers in AD patients and to detect an AD related amyloid protein in cerebral spinal fluid. Warner, Anal. Chem. 59: 1203A (1987); World Patent No. 92/17152 by Potter; Glenner et al., U.S. Pat. No. 4,666,829. These methods for diagnosing AD have not been proven to detect AD in all patients, particularly at early stages of the disease and are relatively invasive, requiring a spinal tap. Also, attempts have been made to develop monoclonal antibodies as probes for imaging of Aβ. Majocha et al., J. Nucl. Med., 33: 2184 (1992); Majocha et al., WO 89/06242 and Majocha et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,231,000. The major disadvantage of antibody probes is the difficulty in getting these large molecules across the blood-brain barrier. Using antibodies for in vivo diagnosis of AD would require marked abnormalities in the blood-brain barrier in order to gain access into the brain. There is no convincing functional evidence that abnormalities in the blood-brain barrier reliably exist in AD. Kalaria, Cerebrovascular & Brain Metabolism Reviews 4: 226 (1992).

Radiolabeled Aβ peptide has been used to label diffuse, compact and neuritic type plaques in sections of AD brain. See Maggio et al., WO 93/04194. However, these peptides share all of the disadvantages of antibodies. Specifically, peptides do not normally cross the blood-brain barrier in amounts necessary for imaging and because these probes react with diffuse plaques, they may not be specific for AD.

Neuritic plaques and neurofibrillary tangles are the two most characteristic pathological hallmarks of AD. Klunk and Abraham, Psychiatric Development, 6:121-152 (1988). Plaques occur earliest in neocortex where they are relatively evenly distributed. Thal et al., Neurology 58:1791-1800 (2002). Tangles appear first in limbic areas such as the transentorhinal cortex and progress in a predictable topographic pattern to the neocortex. Braak and Braak, Acta Neuropathologica 82:239-259 (1991). Arnold et al. mapped the distribution of NFT and neuritic plaques in the brains of patients with AD. Arnold et al., Cereb. Cortex 1:103-116 (1991). Compared to NFT, neuritic plaques were, in general, more evenly distributed throughout the cortex, with the exceptions of notably fewer neuritic plaques in limbic periallocortex and allocortex (the areas with greatest NFT density). By thioflavin-S staining, temporal and occipital lobes had the highest neuritic plaque densities, limbic and frontal lobes had the lowest, and parietal lobe was intermediate. Arriagada et al., Neurology 42:1681-1688 (1992). Arriagada et al studied the topographic distribution of AD-type pathologic changes in the brains of presumed nondemented elderly individuals. Their observations suggest that most individuals over the age of 55 have at least a few NFT and plaques. Immunohistochemically defined subtypes of SP had distinct patterns of distribution with Aβ-immunoreactive plaques present in neocortical areas much greater than limbic areas and Alz-50 immunoreactive plaques being infrequent and limited to those areas that contain Alz-50-positive neurons and NFT. These patterns suggested a commonality in the pathologic processes that lead to NFT and SP in both aging and AD.

There remains debate as to whether plaques and tangles are byproducts of the neurodegenerative process found in AD or whether they are the cause of neuronal cell death. Ross, Current Opinion in Neurobiol. 96:644-650 (1996); Terry, J. of Neuropath. & Exp. Neurol. 55:1023-1025 (1996); Terry, J Neural Transmission-Suppl. 53:141-145 (1998).

Evidence is clear that neocortical and hippocampal synapse loss correlates well with pre-morbid cognitive status. Some researchers suggest that disruption of microtubule structure and function, caused by the hyperphosphorylation of the microtubule-associated protein, tau, plays the key etiologic role in synapse loss in particular and AD in general. Terry, J. of Neuropath. & Exp. Neurol. 55:1023-1025 (1996); Terry, J of Neural Transmission-Suppl. 53:141-145 (1998). Oxidative damage and membrane breakdown have been proposed to play important roles in AD. Perry, Free Radical Biology & Medicine 28:831-834 (2000); Pettegrew et al., Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 826:282-306 (1997). Vascular factors including subtle, chronic cerebral hypoperfusion also have been implicated in the pathogenesis of AD. De la Torre, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 903:424-436 (2000); Di Iorio et al., Aging (Milano) 11:345-352 (1999). While all of these factors are likely to play some role in the pathogenesis of AD, increasing evidence points to abnormalities in the processing of the amyloid-beta (Aβ) peptide, a 4 kD peptide that aggregates into a fibrillar, β-pleated sheet structure. Glenner and Wong, Biochemical & Biophysical Research Communications 120:885-890 (1984). Aβ has been proposed to play an important role in the pathogenesis of AD for several reasons: 1) Aβ deposits are the earliest neuropathological markers of AD in Down's Syndrome, and can precede NFT formation by several decades Mann et al., Neurodegeneration 1:201-215 (1992); Naslund, et al., JAMA 283:1571-1577 (2000). 2) β-amyloidosis is relatively specific to AD and closely related disorders; Selkoe, Trends in Neurosciences 16:403-409 (1993); 3) Aβ is toxic to cultured neurons, Yankner Neurobiol. Aging 13:615-616 (1992); Mattson et al., J. Neuroscience 12:376-389 (1992); Shearman et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91:1470-1474 (1994), a toxicity that appears to be dependent on β-sheet secondary structure and aggregation into at least oligomers. Lambert et al. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:6448-6453 (1989); Pike et al., J. Neuroscience 13:1676-1687 (1993); Simmons et al., Molecular Pharmacology 45:373-379 (1994). Although Aβ surely exists in an equilibrium distributed across monomeric, oligomeric and fibrillar/plaque fractions, the oligomeric form of Aβ has been strongly implicated as the key neurotoxic component. Selkoe, Alzheimer disease, edited by R. D. Terry, et al, pp. 293-310 Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia (1999); Selkoe, Science 298, 789-91 (2002). Recognition of the toxic effects of oligomeric Aβ has formed a basis for compromise for some opponents of the “amyloid cascade hypothesis” of AD. Terry, Ann. Neurol. 49:684 (2001). Perhaps the strongest evidence for a role of Aβ in the pathogenesis of AD comes from the finding of mutations in the amyloid precursor protein (APP) gene which lead to some forms of early onset familial AD. Goate et al., Nature 349:704-706 (1991). In addition, all familial forms of autosomal dominant AD have in common an elevated level of the more rapidly aggregating 42 amino acid form of Aβ. Younkin Rinsho Shinkeigaku—Clinical Neurology 37:1099 (1997). In contrast, no mutation in the tau protein has been shown to cause AD. Instead mutations in tau (chromosome 17) are linked to frontotemporal dementia with Parkinsonism. Goedert et al., Neuron 21:955-958 (1998). Recent evidence has shown a good correlation between the levels of Aβ in brain and cognitive decline in AD and the deposition of amyloid appears to be a very early, perhaps the first, event in the pathogenesis of AD, preceding any cognitive impairment. Naslund, et al., JAMA 283:1571-1577 (2000). Its presence may modulate a number of biochemical pathways that result in the deposition of still other proteins, the activation of astroglia and microglia, and eventually neuronal cell death and consequent cognitive dysfunction.

Data suggest that amyloid-binding compounds will have therapeutic potential in AD and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Morphological reactions including, reactive astrocytosis, dystrophic neurites, activated microglia cells, synapse loss, and full complement activation found around neuritic plaques all signify that neurotoxic and cell degenerative processes are occurring in the areas adjacent to these Aβ deposits. Joachim et al., Am. J. Pathol. 135: 309 (1989); Masliah et al., loc. cit. 137: 1293 (1990); Lue and Rogers, Dementia 3: 308 (1992). Aβ-induced neurotoxicity and cell degeneration has been reported in a number of cell types in vitro. Yankner et al., Science 250: 279 (1990); Roher et al., BBRC 174: 572 (1991); Frautschy et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 88: 83362 (1991); Shearman et al., loc. cit. 91: 1470 (1994). It has been shown that aggregation of the Aβ peptide is necessary for in vitro neurotoxicity. Yankner, Neurobiol. Aging 13: 615 (1992). Recently, three laboratories have reported results which suggest that Congo red inhibits Aβ-induced neurotoxicity and cell degeneration in vitro. Burgevin et al., NeuroReport 5: 2429 (1994); Lorenzo and Yankner, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 91: 12243 (1994); Pollack et al., Neuroscience Letters 184: 113 (1995); Pollack et al., Neuroscience Letters 197: 211 (1995). The mechanism appears to involve both inhibition of fibril formation and prevention of the neurotoxic properties of formed fibrils. Lorenzo and Yankner, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 91: 12243 (1994). Congo red also has been shown to protect pancreatic islet cells from the toxicity caused by amylin. Lorenzo and Yankner, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 91: 12243 (1994). Amylin is a fibrillar peptide similar to Aβ which accumulates in the pancreas in type 2 diabetes mellitus.

It is known in the art that certain azo dyes, such as Congo red, may be carcinogenic. Morgan et al. Environmental Health Perspectives, 102 (supp.) 2: 63-78, (1994). This potential carcinogenicity appears to be based largely on the fact that azo dyes are extensively metabolized to the free parent amine by intestinal bacteria. Cerniglia et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Com., 107: 1224-1229, (1982). In the case of benzidine dyes (and many other substituted benzidines), it is the free amine which is the carcinogen. These facts have little implications for amyloid imaging studies in which an extremely minute amount of the high specific activity radiolabelled dye would be directly injected into the blood stream. In this case, the amount administered would be negligible and the dye would by-pass the intestinal bacteria.

In the case of therapeutic usage, these facts have critical importance. Release of a known carcinogen from a therapeutic compound is unacceptable. A second problem with diazo dye metabolism is that much of the administered drug is metabolized by intestinal bacteria prior to absorption. This lowered bioavailability remains a disadvantage even if the metabolites released are innocuous.

Thioflavin T is a basic dye first described as a selective amyloid dye in 1959 by Vassar and Culling (Arch. Pathol. 68: 487 (1959)). Schwartz et al. (Zbl. Path. 106: 320 (1964)) first demonstrated the use of Thioflavin S, an acidic dye, as an amyloid dye in 1964. The properties of both Thioflavin T and Thioflavin S have since been studied in detail. Kelenyi J. Histochem. Cytochem. 15: 172 (1967); Burns et al. J. Path. Bact. 94:337 (1967); Guntern et al. Experientia 48: 8 (1992); LeVine Meth. Enzymol. 309: 274 (1999). Thioflavin S is commonly used in the post-mortem study of amyloid deposition in AD brain where it has been shown to be one of the most sensitive techniques for demonstrating senile plaques. Vallet et al. Acta Neuropathol. 83: 170 (1992). Thioflavin T has been frequently used as a reagent to study the aggregation of soluble amyloid proteins into beta-sheet fibrils. LeVine Prot. Sci. 2: 404 (1993). Quaternary amine derivatives related to Thioflavin T have been proposed as amyloid imaging agents, although no evidence of brain uptake of these agents has been presented. Caprathe et al. U.S. Pat. No. 6,001,331.

The inability to assess amyloid deposition in AD until after death impedes the study of this devastating illness. A method of quantifying amyloid deposition before death is needed both as a diagnostic tool in mild or clinically confusing cases as well as in monitoring the effectiveness of therapies targeted at preventing Aβ deposition. Therefore, it remains of utmost importance to develop a safe and specific method for diagnosing AD before death by imaging amyloid in brain parenchyma in vivo. Even though various attempts have been made to diagnose AD in vivo, currently, there are no antemortem probes for brain amyloid. No method has utilized a high affinity probe for amyloid that has low toxicity, can cross the blood-brain barrier, and binds more effectively to AD brain than to normal brain in order to identify AD amyloid deposits in brain before a patient's death. Thus, no in vivo method for AD diagnosis has been demonstrated to meet these criteria.

To date, the present inventors have developed a series of uncharged derivatives of thioflavin T as amyloid-imaging agents that exhibit high affinity for amyloid deposits and high permeability across the blood-brain barrier. Extensive in vitro and in vivo studies of these amyloid-imaging agents represented by BTA-1 suggest that they specifically bind to amyloid deposits at concentrations typical of those achieved during positron emission tomography studies. In the complex milieu of human brain, non-specific binding of the amyloid-imaging compounds is low, even in control brains devoid of amyloid deposits. At nanomolar concentration, these compounds appear not to bind to neurofibrillary tangles.

The present inventors have determined that varying substitution in different positions can increase binding affinity depending upon position of the substituent.

A need exists for amyloid binding compounds that are non-toxic and bioavailable and, consequently, can be used in therapeutics.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

It is therefore an embodiment of the present invention to provide compounds which allow for a safe and specific method for diagnosing AD before death by in vivo imaging of amyloid in brain parenchyma. The compounds useful for this purpose are according to the following formula:

wherein Z is S, NR′, O or C(R′)₂ in which case the tautomeric form of the heterocyclic ring may become an indole in which R′ is H or a lower alkyl group:

wherein Y is NR¹R², OR², or SR²;

wherein the nitrogen of

is not a quaternary amine;

wherein each R¹ and R² independently is selected from the group consisting of H, a lower alkyl group, (CH₂)_(n)OR′ (wherein n=1, 2, or 3), CF₃, CH₂—CH₂X, CH₂—CH₂—CH₂X (wherein X═F, Cl, Br or I), (C═O)—R′, R_(ph), and (CH₂)_(n)R_(ph) (wherein n=1, 2, 3, or 4 and R_(ph) represents an unsubstituted or substituted phenyl group with the phenyl substituents being chosen from any of the non-phenyl substituents defined below for R³-R¹⁰ and R′ is H or a lower alkyl group);

each R³-R¹⁰ independently is selected from the group consisting of H, F, Cl, Br, I, a lower alkyl group, (CH₂)_(n)OR′ (wherein n=1, 2, or 3), CF₃, CH₂—CH₂X, O—CH₂—CH₂X, CH₂—CH₂—CH₂X, O—CH₂—CH₂—CH₂X (wherein X═F, Cl, Br or I), CN, (C═O)—R′, N(R′)₂, NO₂, (C═O)N(R′)₂, O(CO)R′, OR′, SR′, COOR′, R_(ph), CR′═CR′—R_(ph), CR₂′-CR₂′—R_(ph) (wherein R_(ph) represents an unsubstituted or substituted phenyl group with the phenyl substituents being chosen from any of the non-phenyl substituents defined for R¹-R¹⁰ and wherein R′ is H or a lower alkyl group), a tri-alkyl tin and a chelating group (with or without a chelated metal group) of the form W-L or V—W-L, wherein V is selected from the group consisting of —COO—, —CO—, —CH₂O— and —CH₂NH—; W is —(CH₂)_(n) where n=0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; and L is:

wherein M is selected from the group consisting of Tc and Re.

Another embodiment of the present invention relates to specific compounds of the above formula which are selected from the group consisting of structures 1-45:

It is another embodiment of the present invention to provide an approach for identifying AD amyloid deposits in brain before a patient's death, using a high-affinity probe for amyloid which has low toxicity, can cross the blood-brain barrier, and can distinguish AD brain from normal brain. Compounds 1-45 are useful in accomplishing the identifying to AD amyloid deposits.

In a preferred embodiment, at least one of the substituents of the thioflavin compounds 1-45 contain a radiolabel selected from the group consisting of ¹³¹I, ¹²³I, ⁷⁶Br, ⁷⁵Br, ¹⁸F, CH₂—CH₂—X*, O—CH₂—CH₂—X*, CH₂—CH₂—CH₂—X*, O—CH₂—CH₂—CH₂—X* (wherein X*=¹³¹I, ¹²³I, ⁷⁶Br, ⁷⁵Br or ¹⁸F), ¹⁹F, ¹²⁵I, or a carbon-containing substituent as shown above, e.g., methyl, wherein at least one carbon is ¹¹C or ¹³C.

The present invention also relates to novel compounds having one of the following structures:

In still another embodiment, the amyloid binding compounds I-45 bind to Aβ with a dissociation constant (K_(D)) between 0.0001 and 10.0 μM when measured by binding to synthetic Aβ peptide or Alzheimer's Disease brain tissue.

Another embodiment of the invention relates to a method for synthesizing the amyloid binding compounds of the present invention having at least one of the substituents selected from the group consisting of ¹³¹I, ¹²⁵I, ¹²³I, ⁷⁶Br, ⁷⁵Br, ¹⁸F, and ¹⁹F, comprising the step of labeling the amyloid binding compound wherein at least one of the substituents is a tri-alkyl tin, by reaction of the compound with a ¹³¹I, ¹²⁵I, ¹²³I, ⁷⁶Br, ⁷⁵Br, ¹⁸F, or ¹⁹F containing substance.

A further embodiment of the present invention relates to a pharmaceutical composition for in vivo imaging of amyloid deposits, comprising (a) an amyloid binding compound of structures 1-45 and (b) a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.

In another embodiment of the invention is an in vivo method for detecting amyloid deposits in a subject, comprising the steps of: (a) administering a detectable quantity of a pharmaceutical composition comprising the labeled amyloid binding compound, and detecting the binding of the compound to amyloid deposit in the subject. In a preferred aspect of this embodiment, the amyloid deposit is located in the brain of a subject. In a particularly preferred aspect of this embodiment, the subject is suspected of having a disease or syndrome selected from the group consisting of Alzheimer's Disease, familial Alzheimer's Disease, Down's Syndrome and homozygotes for the apolipoprotein E4 allele. In another particularly preferred aspect of this embodiment, the detecting is selected from the group consisting of gamma imaging, magnetic resonance imaging and magnetic resonance spectroscopy. In a preferred aspect of this embodiment, the gamma imaging is either PET or SPECT. In another preferred aspect of this embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition is administered by intravenous injection. In another preferred aspect of this embodiment, the ratio of (i) binding of the compound to a brain area other than the cerebellum to (ii) binding of the compound to the cerebellum, in a subject, is compared to the ratio in a normal subject.

Anther embodiment relates to a method of detecting amyloid deposits in biopsy or post-mortem human or animal tissue comprising the steps of: (a) incubating formalin-fixed or fresh-frozen tissue with a solution of an amyloid binding compound of the present invention to form a labeled deposit and then, (b) detecting the labeled deposits. In a preferred aspect of this embodiment, the solution is composed of 25-100% ethanol, with the remainder of the solution being water, wherein the solution is saturated with an amyloid binding compound according to the present invention. In a particularly preferred aspect of this embodiment, the solution is composed of an aqueous buffer (such as tris or phosphate) containing 0-50% ethanol, wherein the solution contains 0.0001 to 100 μM of an amyloid binding compound according to the present invention. In a particularly preferred aspect of this embodiment, the detecting is effected by microscopic techniques selected from the group consisting of bright-field, fluorescence, laser-confocal, and cross-polarization microscopy.

A further embodiment relates to a method of quantifying the amount of amyloid in biopsy or post-mortem tissue comprising the steps of: a) incubating a radiolabeled derivative of an amyloid binding compound of structures 1-45 of the present invention with a homogenate of biopsy or post-mortem tissue, b) separating the tissue-bound from the tissue-unbound radiolabeled derivative of an amyloid binding compound of the present invention, c) quantifying the tissue-bound radiolabeled derivative of an amyloid binding compound of the present invention, and d) converting the units of tissue-bound radiolabeled derivative of an amyloid binding compound of the present invention to units of micrograms of amyloid per 100 mg of tissue by comparison with a standard.

Another embodiment relates to a method of distinguishing an Alzheimer's disease brain from a normal brain comprising the steps of: a) obtaining tissue from (i) the cerebellum and (ii) another area of the same brain other than the cerebellum, from normal subjects and from subjects suspected of having Alzheimer's disease; b) incubating the tissues with a radiolabeled derivative of a thioflavin amyloid binding compound of structures 1-45 according to the present invention so that amyloid in the tissue binds with the radiolabeled derivative of an amyloid binding compound of structures 1-45 the present invention; c) quantifying the amount of amyloid bound to the radiolabeled derivative of an amyloid binding compound of the present invention according to the above recited method; d) calculating the ratio of the amount of amyloid in the area of the brain other than the cerebellum to the amount of amyloid in the cerebellum; e) comparing the ratio for amount of amyloid in the tissue from normal subjects with ratio for amount of amyloid in tissue from subjects suspected of having Alzheimer's disease; and f) determining the presence of Alzheimer's disease if the ratio from the brain of a subject suspected of having Alzheimer's disease is above 90% of the ratios obtained from the brains of normal subjects.

Another embodiment of the present invention relates to compounds of structures 1-45 which are useful in binding specifically to amyloid deposits over neurofibrillary tangles.

Another embodiment relates to a method of selectively binding to amyloid plaques but not to neurofibrillary tangles in vivo brain tissue which contains both by administering an effective amount of a consisting of one of structures 1-45 so that blood concentration of the administered compound remains below 10 nM in vivo.

Yet another embodiment relates to novel compounds of structures 1-45, wherein at least one of the atoms of the formula is replaced with a radiolabel, in particular, wherein said radiolabel is ¹¹C.

Yet another embodiment relates to novel compounds of structures 1-45, wherein at least one of the atoms of the formulae is selected from the group consisting of ³H, ¹³¹I, ¹²⁵I, ¹²³I, ⁷⁶Br, ⁷⁵Br, ¹⁸F, CH₂—CH₂—X*, O—CH₂—CH₂—X*, CH₂—CH₂—CH₂—X*, O—CH₂—CH₂—CH₂—X* (wherein X*=¹³¹I, ¹²³I, ⁷⁶Br, ⁷⁵Br or ¹⁸F), ¹⁹F, ¹²⁵I, a carbon-containing substituent selected from the group consisting of lower alkyl, (CH₂)_(n)OR′, CF₃, CH₂—CH₂X, O—CH₂—CH₂X, CH₂—CH₂—CH₂X, O—CH₂—CH₂—CH₂X (wherein X═F, Cl, Br or I), CN, (C═O)—R′, (C═O)N(R′)₂, O(CO)R′, COOR′, CR′═CR′—R_(ph) and CR₂′-CR₂′—R_(ph) wherein at least one carbon is ¹¹C, ¹³C or ¹⁴C and a chelating group (with chelated metal group) of the form W-L* or V—W-L*, wherein V is selected from the group consisting of —COO—, —CO—, —CH₂O— and —CH₂NH—; W is —(CH₂)_(n) where n=0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; and L* is:

wherein M* is ^(99m)Tc.

Other embodiments of the invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art from consideration of the specification and practice of the invention disclosed herein. It is intended that the specification be considered as exemplary only, with the true scope and spirit of the invention being indicated by the following claims. Additionally, all documents referred to herein are expressly incorporated by reference.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 Shows the structures of a Thioflavin S and Thioflavin T;

FIG. 2 Shows the structures of two thioflavin derivatives according to the invention;

FIG. 3 Shows four serial sections of fluorescent dyed brain frontal cortex of an AD patient;

FIG. 4 Shows proposed sites of binding of Chrysamine G and Thioflavin T in β-sheet fibrils;

FIG. 5 Shows competition assay using Chrysamine G, Thioflavin S and Thioflavin T, and derivatives of the present invention (BTA-0, BTA-1 and BTA-2);

FIG. 6 Shows time course radioactivity in the frontal cortex of baboons injected with labeled BTA-1,6-Meo-BTA-1 and 6-Me-BTA-1; and

FIG. 7 Shows a tranverse positron emission tomography image of two levels of baboon brain following i.v. injection of [N-methyl-¹¹C]BTA-1.

FIG. 8 Shows post-mortem sections of human and transgenic mouse brain stained with a derivative of the present invention (BTA-1).

FIG. 9 Shows in vivo labeling of amyloid plaques and vascular amyloid stained by a derivative of the present invention (BTA-1) in living transgenic mice imaged with multiphoton microscopy.

FIG. 10A Shows a data comparison of [³H]binding to homogenates from a control brain, Alzheimer's disease brain and non-Alzheimer's disease dementia brain.

FIG. 10B Shows data ratio from a comparison of the frontal cortex and cerebellum for each individual brain in a control brain, Alzheimer's disease brain and non-Alzheimer's disease dementia brain.

FIG. 11A-F Shows the specificity of the inventive compounds for amyloid plaques over neurofibrillary tangles, where A and B show the entorhinal cortex, C and D show the frontal cortex and E and F show the cerebellum of a Braak stage II control crain.

FIG. 12 Table showing [³H] BTA-1 binding to specified areas of a Braak II Control Brain and a Braak VI AD Brain (AD02).

FIG. 13 Shows a Scratchard plot of the binding of [³H] BTA-1 to homogenates from AD frontal gray matter and underlying frontal white matter from the same AD brain.

FIG. 14 Shows an autoradiogram and fluorescent micrograph showing the overlap of [I-125]6-OH-BTA-0-3′-I binding to plaques and cerebrovascular amyloid and amyloid deposits stained by the amyloid dye, X-34. Left: autoradiogram of [1-125]6-OH-BTA-0-3′-I binding to fresh frozen tissue from post-mortem AD brain. The dark areas show the localization of [I-125]6-OH-BTA-0-3′-I and are outlined in red. The structure of [I-125]6—OH-BTA-0-3′4 is shown in the lower left. Right: The same piece of post-mortem AD brain tissue stained with the amyloid dye, X-34. Bright areas indicate plaques and cerebrovascular amyloid. Center: Overlap of the red outline from the left autoradiogram with the X-34 stain showing nearly 1:1 correspondence of [I-125]6-OH-BTA-0-3′-I binding to plaques and cerebrovascular amyloid. Inset: Shows a 2.25-fold enlargement of the boxed area in the center figure. Bar represents 1000 μm.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention exploits the ability of Thioflavin compounds and radiolabeled derivatives thereof to cross the blood brain barrier in vivo and bind to Aβ deposited in neuritic (but not diffuse) plaques, to Aβ deposited in cerebrovascular amyloid, and to the amyloid consisting of the protein deposited in NFT. The present compounds are non-quaternary amine derivatives of Thioflavin S and T which are known to stain amyloid in tissue sections and bind to synthetic Aβ in vitro. Kelenyi J. Histochem. Cytochem. 15: 172 (1967); Burns et al. J. Path. Bact. 94:337 (1967); Guntern et al. Experientia 48: 8 (1992); LeVine Meth. Enzymol. 309: 274 (1999).

The thioflavin derivatives of the present invention have each of the following characteristics: (1) specific binding to synthetic Aβ in vitro and (2) ability to cross a non-compromised blood brain barrier in vivo.

The method of this invention determines the presence and location of amyloid deposits in an organ or body area, preferably brain, of a patient. The present method comprises administration of a detectable quantity of a pharmaceutical composition containing an amyloid binding compound chosen from structures 1-45, as shown above, called a “detectable compound,” or a pharmaceutically acceptable water-soluble salt thereof, to a patient. A “detectable quantity” means that the amount of the detectable compound that is administered is sufficient to enable detection of binding of the compound to amyloid. An “imaging effective quantity” means that the amount of the detectable compound that is administered is sufficient to enable imaging of binding of the compound to amyloid.

The invention employs amyloid probes which, in conjunction with non-invasive neuroimaging techniques such as magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) or imaging (MRI), or gamma imaging such as positron emission tomography (PET) or single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), are used to quantify amyloid deposition in vivo. The term “in vivo imaging” refers to any method which permits the detection of a labeled thioflavin derivative which is chosen from structures 1-45, as described above. For gamma imaging, the radiation emitted from the organ or area being examined is measured and expressed either as total binding or as a ratio in which total binding in one tissue is normalized to (for example, divided by) the total binding in another tissue of the same subject during the same in vivo imaging procedure. Total binding in vivo is defined as the entire signal detected in a tissue by an in vivo imaging technique without the need for correction by a second injection of an identical quantity of labeled compound along with a large excess of unlabeled, but otherwise chemically identical compound. A “subject” is a mammal, preferably a human, and most preferably a human suspected of having dementia.

For purposes of in vivo imaging, the type of detection instrument available is a major factor in selecting a given label. For instance, radioactive isotopes and ¹⁹F are particularly suitable for in vivo imaging in the methods of the present invention. The type of instrument used will guide the selection of the radionuclide or stable isotope. For instance, the radionuclide chosen must have a type of decay detectable by a given type of instrument. Another consideration relates to the half-life of the radionuclide. The half-life should be long enough so that it is still detectable at the time of maximum uptake by the target, but short enough so that the host does not sustain deleterious radiation. The radiolabeled compounds of the invention can be detected using gamma imaging wherein emitted gamma irradiation of the appropriate wavelength is detected. Methods of gamma imaging include, but are not limited to, SPECT and PET. Preferably, for SPECT detection, the chosen radiolabel will lack a particulate emission, but will produce a large number of photons in a 140-200 keV range. For PET detection, the radiolabel will be a positron-emitting radionuclide such as ¹⁹F which will annihilate to form two 511 keV gamma rays which will be detected by the PET camera.

In the present invention, amyloid binding compounds/probes are made which are useful for in vivo imaging and quantification of amyloid deposition. These compounds are to be used in conjunction with non-invasive neuroimaging techniques such as magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) or imaging (MRI), positron emission tomography (PET), and single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). In accordance with this invention, the thioflavin derivatives may be labeled with ¹⁹F or ¹³C for MRS/MRI by general organic chemistry techniques known to the art. See, e.g., March, J. ADVANCED ORGANIC CHEMISTRY: REACTIONS, MECHANISMS, AND STRUCTURE (3rd Edition, 1985), the contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference. The thioflavin derivatives also may be radiolabeled with ¹⁸F, ¹¹C, ⁷⁵Br, or ⁷⁶Br for PET by techniques well known in the art and are described by Fowler, J. and Wolf, A. in POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY AND AUTORADIOGRAPHY (Phelps, M., Mazziota, J., and Schelbert, H. eds.) 391-450 (Raven Press, NY 1986) the contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference. The thioflavin derivatives also may be radiolabeled with ¹²³I for SPECT by any of several techniques known to the art. See, e.g., Kulkarni, Int. J. Rad. Appl. & Inst. (Part B) 18: 647 (1991), the contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference. In addition, the thioflavin derivatives may be labeled with any suitable radioactive iodine isotope, such as, but not limited to ¹³¹I, ¹²⁵I, or ¹²³I, by iodination of a diazotized amino derivative directly via a diazonium iodide, see Greenbaum, F. Am. J. Pharm. 108: 17 (1936), or by conversion of the unstable diazotized amine to the stable triazene, or by conversion of a non-radioactive halogenated precursor to a stable tri-alkyl tin derivative which then can be converted to the iodo compound by several methods well known to the art. See, Satyamurthy and Barrio J. Org. Chem. 48: 4394 (1983), Goodman et al., J. Org. Chem. 49: 2322 (1984), and Mathis et al., J. Label. Comp. and Radiopharm. 1994: 905; Chumpradit et al., J. Med. Chem. 34: 877 (1991); Zhuang et al., J. Med. Chem. 37: 1406 (1994); Chumpradit et al., J. Med. Chem. 37: 4245 (1994). For example, a stable triazene or tri-alkyl tin derivative of thioflavin or its analogues is reacted with a halogenating agent containing ¹³¹I, ¹²⁵I, ¹²³I, ⁷⁶Br, ⁷⁵Br, ¹⁹F. Thus, the stable tri-alkyl tin derivatives of thioflavin and its analogues are novel precursors useful for the synthesis of many of the radiolabeled compounds within the present invention. As such, these tri-alkyl tin derivatives are one embodiment of this invention.

The thioflavin derivatives also may be radiolabeled with known metal radiolabels, such as Technetium-99m (^(99m)Tc). Modification of the substituents to introduce ligands that bind such metal ions can be effected without undue experimentation by one of ordinary skill in the radiolabeling art. The metal radiolabeled thioflavin derivative can then be used to detect amyloid deposits. Preparing radiolabeled derivatives of Tc^(99m) is well known in the art. See, for example, Zhuang et al., “Neutral and stereospecific Tc-99m complexes: [99 mTc]N-benzyl-3,4-di-(N-2-mercaptoethyl)-amino-pyrrolidines (P-BAT)” Nuclear Medicine & Biology 26(2):217-24, (1999); Oya et al., “Small and neutral Tc(v)O BAT, bisaminoethanethiol (N2S2) complexes for developing new brain imaging agents” Nuclear Medicine & Biology 25(2): 135-40, (1998); and Hom et al., “Technetium-99m-labeled receptor-specific small-molecule radiopharmaceuticals: recent developments and encouraging results” Nuclear Medicine & Biology 24(6):485-98, (1997).

The methods of the present invention may use isotopes detectable by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy for purposes of in vivo imaging and spectroscopy. Elements particularly useful in magnetic resonance spectroscopy include ¹⁹F and ¹³C.

Suitable radioisotopes for purposes of this invention include beta-emitters, gamma-emitters, positron-emitters, and x-ray emitters. These radioisotopes include ¹³¹I, ¹²³I, ¹⁸F, ¹¹C, ⁷⁵Br, and ⁷⁶Br. Suitable stable isotopes for use in Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) or Spectroscopy (MRS), according to this invention, include ¹⁹F and ¹³C. Suitable radioisotopes for in vitro quantification of amyloid in homogenates of biopsy or post-mortem tissue include ¹²⁵I, ¹⁴C and ³H. The preferred radiolabels are ¹¹C or ¹⁸F for use in PET in vivo imaging, ¹²³I for use in SPECT imaging, ¹⁹F for MRS/MRI, and ³H or ¹⁴C for in vitro studies. However, any conventional method for visualizing diagnostic probes can be utilized in accordance with this invention.

The method may be used to diagnose AD in mild or clinically confusing cases. This technique would also allow longitudinal studies of amyloid deposition in human populations at high risk for amyloid deposition such as Down's syndrome, familial AD, and homozygotes for the apolipoprotein E4 allele. Corder et al., Science 261: 921 (1993). A method that allows the temporal sequence of amyloid deposition to be followed can determine if deposition occurs long before dementia begins or if deposition is unrelated to dementia. This method can be used to monitor the effectiveness of therapies targeted at preventing amyloid deposition.

Generally, the dosage of the detectably labeled thioflavin derivative will vary depending on considerations such as age, condition, sex, and extent of disease in the patient, contraindications, if any, concomitant therapies and other variables, to be adjusted by a physician skilled in the art. Dosage can vary from 0.001 μg/kg to 10 μg/kg, preferably 0.01 μg/kg to 1.0 μg/kg.

Administration to the subject may be local or systemic and accomplished intravenously, intraarterially, intrathecally (via the spinal fluid) or the like. Administration may also be intradermal or intracavitary, depending upon the body site under examination. After a sufficient time has elapsed for the compound to bind with the amyloid, for example 30 minutes to 48 hours, the area of the subject under investigation is examined by routine imaging techniques such as MRS/MRI, SPECT, planar scintillation imaging, PET, and any emerging imaging techniques, as well. The exact protocol will necessarily vary depending upon factors specific to the patient, as noted above, and depending upon the body site under examination, method of administration and type of label used; the determination of specific procedures would be routine to the skilled artisan. For brain imaging, preferably, the amount (total or specific binding) of the bound radioactively labeled thioflavin derivative or analogue of the present invention is measured and compared (as a ratio) with the amount of labeled thioflavin derivative bound to the cerebellum of the patient. This ratio is then compared to the same ratio in age-matched normal brain.

The pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention are advantageously administered in the form of injectable compositions, but may also be formulated into well known drug delivery systems (e.g., oral, rectal, parenteral (intravenous, intramuscular, or subcutaneous), intracisternal, intravaginal, intraperitoneal, local (powders, ointments or drops), or as a buccal or nasal spray). A typical composition for such purpose comprises a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. For instance, the composition may contain about 10 mg of human serum albumin and from about 0.5 to 500 micrograms of the labeled thioflavin derivative per milliliter of phosphate buffer containing NaCl. Other pharmaceutically acceptable carriers include aqueous solutions, non-toxic excipients, including salts, preservatives, buffers and the like, as described, for instance, in REMINGTON'S PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES, 15th Ed. Easton: Mack Publishing Co. pp. 1405-1412 and 1461-1487 (1975) and THE NATIONAL FORMULARY XIV., 14th Ed. Washington: American Pharmaceutical Association (1975), the contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference.

Examples of non-aqueous solvents are propylene glycol, polyethylene glycol, vegetable oil and injectable organic esters such as ethyl oleate. Aqueous carriers include water, alcoholic/aqueous solutions, saline solutions, parenteral vehicles such as sodium chloride, Ringer's dextrose, etc. Intravenous vehicles include fluid and nutrient replenishers. Preservatives include antimicrobials, anti-oxidants, chelating agents and inert gases. The pH and exact concentration of the various components of the pharmaceutical composition are adjusted according to routine skills in the art. See, Goodman and Gilman's THE PHARMACOLOGICAL BASIS FOR THERAPEUTICS (7th Ed.).

Particularly preferred pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention are those that, in addition to specifically binding amyloid in vivo and capable of crossing the blood brain barrier, are also non-toxic at appropriate dosage levels and have a satisfactory duration of effect.

According to the present invention, a pharmaceutical composition comprising thioflavin amyloid binding compounds, is administered to subjects in whom amyloid or amyloid fibril formation are anticipated. In the preferred embodiment, such subject is a human and includes, for instance, those who are at risk of developing cerebral amyloid, including the elderly, nondemented population and patients having amyloidosis associated diseases and Type 2 diabetes mellitus. The term “preventing” is intended to include the amelioration of cell degeneration and toxicity associated with fibril formation. By “amelioration” is meant the treatment or prevention of more severe forms of cell degeneration and toxicity in patients already manifesting signs of toxicity, such as dementia.

The pharmaceutical composition comprises thioflavin amyloid binding compounds described above and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. In one embodiment, such pharmaceutical composition comprises serum albumin, thioflavin amyloid binding compounds and a phosphate buffer containing NaCl. Other pharmaceutically acceptable carriers include aqueous solutions, non-toxic excipients, including salts, preservatives, buffers and the like, as described, for instance, in REMINGTON'S PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES, 15th Ed., Easton: Mack Publishing Co., pp. 1405-1412 and 1461-1487 (1975) and THE NATIONAL FORMULARY XIV., 14th Ed. Washington: American Pharmaceutical Association (1975), and the UNITED STATES PHARMACOPEIA XVIII. 18th Ed. Washington: American Pharmaceutical Association (1995), the contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference.

Examples of non-aqueous solvents are propylene glycol, polyethylene glycol, vegetable oil and injectable organic esters such as ethyl oleate. Aqueous carriers include water, alcoholic/aqueous solutions, saline solutions, parenteral vehicles such as sodium chloride, Ringer's dextrose, etc. Intravenous vehicles include fluid and nutrient replenishers. Preservatives include antimicrobial, anti-oxidants, chelating agents and inert gases. The pH and exact concentration of the various components the pharmaceutical composition are adjusted according to routine skills in the art. See, Goodman and Gilman's THE PHARMACOLOGICAL BASIS FOR THERAPEUTICS (7th Ed.).

According to the invention, the inventive pharmaceutical composition could be administered orally, in the form of a liquid or solid, or injected intravenously or intramuscularly, in the form of a suspension or solution. By the term “pharmaceutically effective amount” is meant an amount that prevents cell degeneration and toxicity associated with fibril formation. Such amount would necessarily vary depending upon the age, weight and condition of the patient and would be adjusted by those of ordinary skill in the art according to well-known protocols. In one embodiment, a dosage would be between 0.1 and 100 mg/kg per day, or divided into smaller dosages to be administered two to four times per day. Such a regimen would be continued on a daily basis for the life of the patient. Alternatively, the pharmaceutical composition could be administered intramuscularly in doses of 0.1 to 100 mg/kg every one to six weeks.

According to the aspect of the invention which relates to a method of detecting amyloid deposits in biopsy or post-mortem tissue, the method involves incubating formalin-fixed tissue with a solution of a thioflavin amyloid binding compound chosen from structures 1-45, described above. Preferably, the solution is 25-100% ethanol, (with the remainder being water) saturated with a thioflavin amyloid binding compound of structures 1-45 according to the invention. Upon incubation, the compound stains or labels the amyloid deposit in the tissue, and the stained or labeled deposit can be detected or visualized by any standard method. Such detection means include microscopic techniques such as bright-field, fluorescence, laser-confocal and cross-polarization microscopy.

The method of quantifying the amount of amyloid in biopsy or post-mortem tissue involves incubating a labeled derivative of thioflavin according to the present invention, or a water-soluble, non-toxic salt thereof, with homogenate of biopsy or post-mortem tissue. The tissue is obtained and homogenized by methods well known in the art. The preferred label is a radiolabel, although other labels such as enzymes, chemiluminescent and immunofluorescent compounds are well known to skilled artisans. The preferred radiolabel is ¹²⁵I, ¹⁴C or ³H which is contained in a substituent substituted on one of the compounds of structures 1-45. Tissue containing amyloid deposits will bind to the labeled derivatives of the thioflavin amyloid binding compounds of the present invention. The bound tissue is then separated from the unbound tissue by any mechanism known to the skilled artisan, such as filtering. The bound tissue can then be quantified through any means known to the skilled artisan. The units of tissue-bound radiolabeled thioflavin derivative are then converted to units of micrograms of amyloid per 100 mg of tissue by comparison to a standard curve generated by incubating known amounts of amyloid with the radiolabeled thioflavin derivative.

The method of distinguishing an Alzheimer's diseased brain from a normal brain involves obtaining tissue from (i) the cerebellum and (ii) another area of the same brain, other than the cerebellum, from normal subjects and from subjects suspected of having Alzheimer's disease. Such tissues are made into separate homogenates using methods well known to the skilled artisan, and then are incubated with a radiolabeled thioflavin amyloid binding compound. The amount of tissue which binds to the radiolabeled thioflavin amyloid binding compound is then calculated for each tissue type (e.g. cerebellum, non-cerebellum, normal, abnormal) and the ratio for the binding of non-cerebellum to cerebellum tissue is calculated for tissue from normal and for tissue from patients suspected of having Alzheimer's disease. These ratios are then compared. If the ratio from the brain suspected of having Alzheimer's disease is above 90% of the ratios obtained from normal brains, the diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease is made. The normal ratios can be obtained from previously obtained data, or alternatively, can be recalculated at the same time the suspected brain tissue is studied.

The ability of the present compounds to specifically bind to neurofibrially tangles over amyloid plaques is particularly true at concentrations less than 10 nM, which includes the in vivo concentration range of PET radiotraces. At these low concentrations, which contains only tangles and no plaques, significant binding does not result when compared to control brain tissue containing neither plaques nor tangles. However, incubation of homogenates of brain tissue which contains mainly plaques and some tangles with radiolabeled compounds of structures 1-45, results in a significant increase in binding when compared to control tissue without plaques or tangles. This data suggests the advantage that these compounds are specific for Aβ deposits at concentrations less than 10 nM. These low concentrations are then detectable PET studies, making PET detection using radiolabeled compounds of structures 1-45 which are specific for Aβ deposits possible. The use of such compounds permits PET detection in Aβ deposits such as those found in plaques and cerebrovascular amyloid. Since it has been reported that Aβ levels in the frontal cortex are increased prior to tangle formation, this would suggest that radiolabeled compounds of structures 1-45, used as PET tracers, would be specific for the earliest changes in AD cortex. Naslund et al. JAMA 283:1571 (2000).

Molecular Modeling

Molecular modeling was done using the computer modeling program Alchemy2000 Tripost, Inc. St. Louis, Mo.) to generate the Aβ peptide chains in the anti-parallel beta-sheet conformation. Kirschner et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 83: 503 (1986). The amyloid peptides were placed in hairpin loops (Hilbich et al., J. Mol. Biol. 218: 149 (1991)) and used without further structural refinement. The Aβ peptides were aligned so that alternate chains were spaced 4.76 Å apart, characteristic of beta-sheet fibrils. Kirschner, supra. Thioflavin T derivatives were energy minimized and aligned with the fibril model to maximize contact with Asp-23/Gln-15/His-13 of Aβ(1-42)

Characterization of Specific Binding to Aβ Synthetic Peptide: Affinity, Kinetics, Maximum Binding

The characteristics of thioflavin derivative binding were analyzed using synthetic Aβ(1-40) and 2-(4′-[¹¹C]methylamino-phenyl)-benzothiazole ([N-methyl-¹¹C]BTA-1) in phosphate-buffered saline (pH 7.0) or glycine buffer/20% ethanol (pH 8.0) as previously described for Chysamine-G binding. Klunk et al. Neurobiol. Aging 15: 691 (1994).

Amino acid sequence for Aβ(1-40) is as follows:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Asp Ala Glu Phe Arg His Asp Ser Gly Tyr Glu Val 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 His His Gln Lys Leu Val Phe Phe Ala Glu Asp Val 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 Gly Ser Asn Lys Gly Ala Ile Ile Gly Leu Met Val 37 38 39 40 Gly Gly Val Val

Preparation of Thioflavin Derivatives for Tissue Staining

Both Thioflavin S (ThS) and Thioflavin T (ThT) were utilized as pharmacophores (see, e.g., FIG. 1). It is noted that both compounds contain quaternary amines and are, therefore, quite hydrophilic as a result.

[C-14]ThT was synthesized and used to determine relative lipophilicity by partitioning between octanol and phosphate-buffered saline. The log of the partition coefficient, logP_(oct), was found to be 0.57 for [C-14]ThT. It was determined that the quaternary amine renders ThT too polar for use as an effective brain imaging agent. Based on the results of lipophilic Congo red derivatives (phenols uncharged at physiologic pH, but potentially ionizable with a pK_(a) of ˜8.5) (Klunk et al. WO09634853A1, WO09847969A1, WO09924394A2), the inventors removed the methyl group from the benzothiazole nitrogen for the ThT derivatives. The removal of the methyl moiety eliminated the charged quaternary amine from the heterocycle portion of the molecule, leaving an aromatic amine which typically have pK_(b) values ˜5.5. Shorthand nomenclature for the ThT derivatives is used wherein the basic backbone is designated BTA (for BenzoThiazole-Aniline). Substituents on the benzothiazole ring are placed before the ‘B’ and the number of methyl groups on the aniline nitrogen is placed after the ‘A’ (see, e.g., FIG. 2).

i. Preliminary Tissue Staining with ThT and Derivatives

ThT (see, e.g., FIG. 1) is a fluorescent dye that has been used as a histological stain for amyloid (Burns et al., “The specificity of the staining of amyloid deposits with thioflavine T” Journal of Pathology & Bacteriology 94:337-344; 1967.). ThT weakly stains plaques (see, e.g., FIG. 3), tangles, neuropil threads and cerebrovascular amyloid (CVA) in AD brain. Preliminary tissue staining shows that both the primary amine 2-(4′-aminophenyl)-6-methyl-benzothiazole (6-Me-BTA-0) and the tertiary amine 2-(4′-dimethylaminophenyl)-6-methyl-benzothiazole (6-Me-BTA-2) also stain plaques and tangles in post-mortem AD brain (see, e.g., FIG. 3). Experiments in which the concentrations of 6-Me-BTA-0 and 6-Me-BTA-2 were progressively decreased showed that staining by both 6-Me-BTA-0 and 6-Me-BTA-1 could still be detected with staining solutions containing only 10 nM of the BTA compound. In contrast, BTP (2-phenylbenzothiazole) does not appear to stain plaques, however, this compound is not nearly as fluorescent as the BTA derivatives. Thus, in the development of these compounds, tissue staining has served the dual purpose of assessing specificity of staining in AD brain tissue as well as assessing binding affinity by screening staining solutions over a range of concentrations similar to that employed in the binding assays.

ii. Binding Models of Congo Red Derivatives and ThT to Aβ

There are some theories about the binding mechanism of ThT to β-amyloid, but no specific theory has been proven or accepted. However, the mechanism appears to be specific and saturable (LeVine, “Quantification of beta-sheet amyloid fibril structures with thioflavin T” Meth. Enzymol. 309:272-284; 1999). Thus, it should be possible to localize the potential binding site(s) on Aβ and develop a binding model in a manner analogous to that used to develop the Congo red (CR)/Chrysamine-G (CG) binding model (Klunk et al., “Developments of small molecule probes for the beta-amyloid protein of Alzheimer's disease” Neurobiol. Aging 15:691-698; 1994.) based on the following structural and binding properties. First, ThT and CG have opposite charges at physiological pH, and it is unlikely that they share a common binding site. This is supported by the lack of competition of ThT for [³H]CG binding to Aβ fibrils (see, e.g., FIG. 5).

Previous structural studies of Aβ fibrils (Hilbich et al., “Aggregation and secondary structure of synthetic amyloid beta A4 peptides of Alzheimer's disease” Journal of Molecular Biology 218:149-63; 1991.) and CR and CG binding to Aβ fibrils suggested a molecular model in which CG binds through a combination of electrostatic and hydrophobic interaction to the area of Lys-16 (see, e.g., FIG. 4). The studies of LeVine (LeVine ibid) help localize the site of ThT binding to Aβ by showing that ThT binds well to Aβ12-28, but negligibly to Aβ325-35. This suggests the ThT binding site lies somewhere between residues 12 and 24 of Aβ. It is likely that the positively charged ThT (a quaternary amine) will be attracted to negatively charged (acidic) residues on Aβ. Between amino acids 12 and 24, the only acidic residues are Glu-22 and Asp-23. While both of these are candidates, the existing model predicts that Glu-22 is involved very near the Lys-16 binding site for CG. The current “working” model localizes ThT binding to the area of Asp-23—on the opposite side of the fibril from the proposed CG site. Since the key feature of ThT (and CG) binding is the presence of a beta-sheet fibril, binding must require more than just a single amino acid residue. The binding site exists when residues not normally interacting in monomers are brought together in the beta-sheet fibril. Therefore, without being bound to any one theory, it is believed that ThT also interacts via hydrogen bonds to His-13 and Gln-15 of a separate, adjacent Aβ molecule comprising the beta-sheet fibril.

iii. Radiolabeling of ThT and Radioligand Binding Assays

Assessing binding by tissue staining is useful, particularly for assessing specificity. The compound BTP, which is not very fluorescent, may not show staining either because it does not bind well enough, or because it is not fluorescent enough. In addition to the AD tissue staining, quantitative binding assays can be conducted spectrophotometrically (LeVine ibid). This assay depends on metachromatic spectral shift which occurs when ThT binds to the amyloid fibril. While this assay can be useful to individually screen highly fluorescent compounds that show this metachromatic shift, it has not been determined to be useful for competition assays. For example, it is commonly observed that test compounds (e.g., CG) quench the fluorescence of the ThT-Aβ complex (as well as ThT alone). Compounds that quench, but do not bind to the ThT site, will falsely appear to bind. Therefore, it is preferable to use radiolabeled ThT in typical radioligand binding assays with aggregated Aβ. In this assay, inhibition of radiolabeled ThT binding to Aβ trapped on filters would represent true inhibition of ThT binding and does not require the test compound to be highly fluorescent.

The following examples are given to illustrate the present invention. It should be understood, however, that the invention is not to be limited to the specific conditions or details described in these examples. Throughout the specification, any and all references to a publicly available document, including U.S. patents, are specifically incorporated into this patent application by reference.

EXAMPLES

All of the reagents used in the synthesis were purchased from Aldrich Chemical Company and used without further purification. Melting points were determined on MeI-TEMP II and were uncorrected. The ¹H NMR spectra of all compounds were measured on Bruker 300 using TMS as internal reference and were in agreement with the assigned structures. The TLC was performed using Silica Gel 60 F₂₅₄ from EM Sciences and detected under UV lamp. Flash chromatography was performed on silica gel 60 (230-400 mesh. purchased from Mallinckrodt Company. The reverse phase TLC were purchased from Whiteman Company.

SYNTHESIS EXAMPLES Example 1 Synthesis of 2-(4′-aminophenyl)-benzothiazole derivatives

Route 1: Example of the synthesis of 6-MeO-BTA-0, -1, -2, which are representative of the group of thioflavin compounds (Shi et al., “Antitumor Benzothiazoles. 3. Synthesis of 2-(4-Aminophenyl)benzothiazoles and Evaluation of Their Activities against Breast Cancer Cell Lines in Vitro and in Vivo” J. Med. Chem. 39:3375-3384, 1996) (reference numbers of the names compounds below refer to the synthetic scheme shown):

(a) 4-Methoxy-4′-nitrobenzanilide (3)

p-Anisidine 1 (1.0 g, 8.1 mmol) was dissolved in anhydrous pyridine (15 ml), 4-nitrobenzoyl chloride 2 (1.5 g, 8.1 mmol) was added. The reaction mixture was allowed to stand at room temperature for 16 hrs. The reaction mixture was poured into water and the precipitate was collected with filtrate under vacuum pressure and washed with 5% sodium bicarbonate (2×10 ml). The product 3 was used in the next step without further purification. ¹H NMR (300 MHz, DMSO-d₆) δ: 10.46 (s, 1H, NH), 8.37 (d, J=5.5 Hz, 2H, H-3′, 5′), 8.17 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H, H-2′, 6′), 7.48 (d, J=6.6 Hz, 2H), 6.97 (d, J=6.5 Hz, 2H), 3.75 (s, 3H, MeO).

(b) 4-Methoxy-4′-nitrothiobenzanilide (4)

A mixture of 4-methoxy-4′-nitrothiobenzaniline 3 (1.0 g, 3.7 mmol) and Lawesson's reagent (0.89 g, 2.2 mmol, 0.6 equiv.) in chlorobenzene (15 mL) was heated to reflux for 4 hrs. The solvent was evaporated and the residue was purified with flush column (hexane:ethyl acetate=4:1) to give 820 mg (77.4%) of the product 4 as orange color solid. ¹H NMR (300 MHz, DMSO-d₆) δ: 8.29 (d, 2H, H-3′, 5′), 8.00 (d, J=8.5 Hz, 2H, H-2′, 6′), 7.76 (d, 2H), 7.03 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 3.808.37 (d, J=5.5 Hz, 2H, H-3′, 5′), 8.17 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H, H-2′, 6′), 7.48 (d, J=6.6 Hz, 2H), 6.97 (d, J=6.5 Hz, 2H), 3.75 (s, 3H, MeO). (s, 3H, MeO).

(c) 6-Methoxy-2-(4-nitrophenyl)benzothiazole (5)

4-Methoxy-4′-nitrothiobenzanilides 4 (0.5 g, 1.74 mmol) was wetted with a little ethanol (˜0.5 mL), and 30% aqueous sodium hydroxide solution (556 mg 13.9 mmol 8 equiv.) was added. The mixture was diluted with water to provide a final solution/suspension of 10% aqueous sodium hydroxide. Aliquots of this mixture were added at 1 min intervals to a stirred solution of potassium ferricyanide (2.29 g, 6.9 mmol, 4 equiv.) in water (5 mL) at 80-90° C. The reaction mixture was heated for a further 0.5 h and then allowed to cool. The participate was collected by filtration under vacuum pressure and washed with water, purified with flush column (hexane:ethyl acetate=4:1) to give 130 mg (26%) of the product 5. ¹HNMR (300 MHz, Acetone-d₆) δ: 8.45 (m, 4H), 8.07 (d, J=8.5 Hz, 1H, H-4), 7.69 (s, 1H, H-7), 7.22 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 1H, H-5), 3.90 (s, 3H, MeO)

(d) 6-Methoxy-2-(4-aminophenyl)benzothiazole (6)

A mixture of the 6-methoxy-2-(4-nitropheyl)benzothiazoles 5 (22 mg, 0.077 mmol) and tin(II) chloride dihydrate (132 mg, 0.45 mmol) in boiling ethanol was stirred under nitrogen for 4 hrs. Ethanol was evaporated and the residue was dissolved in ethyl acetate (10 mL), washed with 1 N sodium hydroxide (2 mL) and water (5 mL), and dried over MgSO₄. Evaporation of the solvent gave 19 mg (97%) of the product 6 as yellow solid.

(e) 6-Methoxy-2-(4-methylaminophenyl)benzothiazole (7) and 6-Methoxy-2-(4-dimethylaminophenyl)benzothiazole (8)

A mixture of 6-methoxy-2-(4-aminophenyl)benzothiazole 6 (15 mg, 0.059 mmol), MeI (8.3 mg, 0.060 mmol) and K₂CO₃ (100 mg, 0.72 mmol) in DMSO (anhydrous, 0.5 ml) was heated at 100° C. for 16 hrs. The reaction mixture was purified by reverse phase TLC (MeOH:H₂O=7:1) to give 2.0 mg (13.3%) of 6-methoxy-2-4-methylaminophenylbenzothiazole 7 and 6 mg (40%) of 6-methoxy-2-(4-dimethylaminophenyl)benzothiazole 8. ¹H NMR of 7 (300 MHz, Acetone-d₆) δ: 7.85 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H, H-2′ 6′), 7.75 (dd, J=8.8 Hz, J=1.3 Hz, 1H, H-4), 7.49 (d, J=2.4 Hz, 1H, H-7), 7.01 (dd, J=8.8 Hz, J=2.4 Hz, H-5), 6.78 (d, J=7.6 Hz, 2H, H-3′ 5′), 3.84 (s, 3H, MeO), 2.91 (s, 3H, NMe), ¹HNMR of 8 (300 MHz, Acetone-d₆) δ: 7.85 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H, H-2′ 6′), 7.75 (dd, J=8.8 Hz, J=1.3 Hz, 1H, H-4), 7.49 (d, J=2.4 Hz, 1H, H-7), 7.01 (dd, J=8.8 Hz, J=2.4 Hz, H-5), 6.78 (d, J=7.6 Hz, 2H, H-3′ 5′), 3.84 (s, 3H, MeO), 3.01 (s, 6H, NMe₂),

Following the same strategy as above, the other claimed 2-(4′-aminophenyl)-benzothiazole derivatives may be synthesized by substituting the appropriate substituted aniline derivative (e.g. 2-, 3-, or 4-methylaniline) and the appropriate 4-nitro-benzoyl chloride derivative (e.g. 2- or 3-methyl-4-nitro-benzoyl chloride).

Example 2 Synthesis of BTA Derivatives without Substitution

Route 2: Example of the synthesis of BTA-0, -1, -2 compounds, which are representative of the group of thioflavin compounds (Garmaise et al., “Anthelmintic Quaternary Salts. III. Benzothiazolium Salts” J. Med. Chem. 12:30-36 1969) (reference numbers of the names compounds below refer to the synthetic scheme shown):

(a) 2-(4-Nitrophenyl)benzothiazole (19)

A solution of 4-nitrobenzoyl chloride (1.49 g, 8.0 mmol) in benzene (anhydrous, 10 mL) was added dropwise to 2-aminothiophenol (1.0 g, 8.0 mmol in 10 ml of benzene) at room temperature. The reaction mixture was allowed to stir for 16 hr. The reaction was quenched with water (20 mL). The aqueous layer was separated and extracted with ethyl acetate (3×10 ml). The combined organic layers were dried and evaporated. The crude product was purified with flush column, (hexane:ethyl acetate=85:15) to give 1.5 g (73.2%) of product as light yellow solid.

(b) 2-(4-Aminophenyl)benzothiazole (20)

A mixture of 2-(4-nitrophenyl)benzothiazole (105 mg, 0.40 mmol) and tin(II) chloride dihydrate (205 mg, 0.9 μmol) in ethanol (20 mL) was refluxed under N₂ for 4 hrs. After removing ethanol by vacuum evaporation. The residue was dissolved into ethyl acetate (20 ml), and washed with NaOH solution (1N, 3×20 ml) and water (3×20 ml), dried and evaporated to dryness to give 102 mg (97%) of the product

(c) 2-(4-Methylaminophenyl)benzothiazole (21) and 2-(4-dimethylaminophenyl)benzothiazole (23)

A mixture of 2-(4-aminophenyl)benzothiazole 20 (15 mg, 0.066 mmol), Met (9.4 mg, 0.066 mg) and K₂CO₃ (135 mg, 0.81 mmol) in DMSO (anhydrous, 0.5 ml) was heated at 100° C. for 16 hrs. The reaction mixture was purified by reverse phase TLC (MeOH:H₂O=6:1) to give 1.5 mg (10%) of 2-(4-methylminophenyl)benzothiazole 21 and 2.5 mg (16.7%) of 2-(4-dimethylaminophenyl)benzothiazole 23.

(d) 2-(4-Dimethylaminophenyl)benzothiazole (23)

The mixture of 2-aminothiophenol 9 (0.5 g, 4.0 mmol) 4-dimethylaminobenzoic acid 22 (0.66 g, 4.0 mmol) and PPA (10 g) was heated to 220° C. for 4 hrs. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature and poured into a solution of 10% potassium carbonate (˜400 mL). The residue was collected by filtration under vacuum pressure to give 964 mg of the product 23, which was ca. 90% pure based on the ¹HNMR analysis. Recrystallization of 100 mg of 23 in MeOH gave 80 mg of the pure product. ¹HNMR (300 MHz, Acetone-d₆) δ: 7.12 (d, J=7.7 Hz, 1H, H-7), 7.01 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 1H, H-4), 6.98 (d, J=9.1 Hz, 2H, H-2′, 6′), 6.56 (t, J=7.8 Hz, J=7.3 Hz, 1H, H-5 or H-6), 5.92 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 1H, H-3′, 5′), 2.50 (s, 6H, NMe₂).

Following the same strategy as above, the other claimed 2-(4′-aminophenyl)-benzothiazole derivatives may be synthesized by substituting appropriate 4-nitro-benzoyl chloride derivative (e.g. 2- or 3-methyl-4-nitro-benzoyl chloride) or appropriate 4-dimethylamino-benzoic acid derivative (e.g. 2- or 3-methyl-4-dimethylamino-benzoic acid).

Example 3 Synthesis of Iodinated Compounds

Route 3: Example of the synthesis of 2-(3′-Iodo-4′-aminophenyl)-6-hydroxybenzathiazole, which is representative for the synthesis of other iodinated compounds (reference numbers of the names compounds below refer to the synthetic scheme shown).

(a) 2-(3′-Iodo-4′-aminophenyl)-6-methoxybenzothiazole (24)

To a solution of 2-(4′-aminophenyl)-6-methoxybenzathiazole (22 mg, 0.09 mmol) in glacial acetic acid (2.0 mL) was injected 1 M iodochloride solution in CH₂Cl₂ (0.10 mL, 0.10 mmol, 1.2 eq.) under N₂ atmosphere. The reaction mixture was stirred at room temperature for 16 hr. The glacial acetic acid was removed under reduced pressure and the residue was dissolved in CH₂Cl₂. After neutralizing the solution with NaHCO₃, the aqueous layer was separated and extracted with CH₂Cl₂. The organic layers were combined and dried over MgSO₄. Following the evaporation of the solvent, the residue was purified by preparative TLC(Hexanes:ethyl acetate=6:1) to give 2-(4′-amino-3′-iodophenyl)-6-methoxybenzathiazole (5) (25 mg, 76%) as brown solid. ¹HNMR (300 MHz, CDCl₃) δ (ppm): 8.35 (d, J=2.0 Hz, 1H), 7.87 (dd, J₁=2.0 Hz, J₂=9.0 Hz, 1H), 7.31 (d, J=2.2 Hz, 1H), 7.04 (dd, J₁=2.2 Hz, J₂=9.0 Hz, 1H), 6.76 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 1H), 3.87 (s, 3H).

(b) 2-(3′-Iodo-4′-aminophenyl)-6-hydroxybenzathiazole (25)

To a solution of 2-(4′-Amino-3′-iodophenyl)-6-methoxybenzathiazole (5) (8.0 mg, 0.02 mmol) in CH₂Cl₂ (2.0 mL) was injected 1 M BBr₃ solution in CH₂Cl₂ (0.20 ml, 0.20 mmol) under N₂ atmosphere. The reaction mixture was stirred at room temperature for 18 hrs. After the reaction was quenched with water, the mixture was neutralized with NaHCO₃. The aqueous layer was extracted with ethyl acetate (3×3 mL). The organic layers were combined and dried over MgSO₄. The solvent was then evaporated under reduced pressure and the residue was purified by preparative TLC (Hexanes:ethyl acetate=7:3) to give 2-(3′-iodo-4′-aminophenyl)-6-hydroxybenzothiazole 6 (4.5 mg, 58%) as a brown solid. ¹HNMR (300 MHz, acetone-d₆) δ (ppm): 8.69 (s, 1H), 8.34 (d, J=2.0 Hz, 1H), 7.77 (dd, J₁=2.0 Hz, J₂=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.76 (d, J=8.8 Hz, 1H), 7.40 (d, J=2.4 Hz, 1H), 7.02 (dd, J₁=2.5 Hz, J₂=8.8 Hz, 1H), 6.94 (d, J=8.5 Hz, 1H), 5.47 (br., 2H). HRMS m/z 367.9483 (M⁺ calcd for C₁₃H₉N₂OSI 367.9480).

BIOLOGICAL EXAMPLES Example 1 Determination of Affinity for Aβ and Brain Uptake of Thioflavin Derivatives

Initial competitive binding studies using [³H]CG and synthetic Aβ(1-40) were conducted to determine if CG, ThS and ThT bound to the same site(s). It has been determined that ThS competed with [³H]CG for binding sites on Aβ (1-40), but ThT did not (see, e.g., FIG. 5). High specific activity [N-methyl-¹¹C]BTA-1 (see Table 1) was then synthesized by methylation of BTA-0. Bindings studies were performed with [N-methyl-¹¹C]BTA-1 and 200 nM Aβ(1-40) fibrils. The specific binding of [N-methyl-¹¹C]BTA-1 was ˜70%. FIG. 5 (see the right panel) shows competition curves for Aβ sites by ThT, BTA-0, BTA-1, and BTA-2 using the [N-methyl-¹¹C]BTA-1 binding assay. The Ki's were: 3.0±0.8 nM for BTA-2; 9.6±1.8 nM for BTA-1; 100±16 nM for BTA-0; and 1900±510 nM for ThT. Not only is the quaternary amine of ThT not necessary for binding to Aβ fibrils, it appears to decrease binding affinity as well.

In Table 1 below are five different ¹¹C-labeled BTA derivatives where their in vitro binding properties, logP values, and in vivo brain uptake and retention properties in mice have been determined.

TABLE 1 In vitro and in vivo properties of several promising ¹¹C-labeled Thioflavin T derivatives. Ratio of K_(i) Mouse Brain Mouse Brain 2 min/30 (nM) Uptake @ 2 Uptake @30 min Structure of ¹¹C-Labeled to Aβ min min Uptake BTA Compound fibrils logP (% ID/g * kg) (% ID/g * kg) Values

21   3.3 (est.) 0.32 ± 0.07 0.17 ± 0.05 1.9

not tested 3.9 (est.) 0.15 ± 0.06 0.16 ± 0.02 0.9

30   1.9 (est.) 0.60 ± 0.04 0.39 ± 0.05 1.5

5.7 2.7 0.43 ± 0.11 0.094 ± 0.038 4.6

2.3 3.3 (est.) 0.32 ± 0.09 0.42 ± 0.10 0.8

9.6 2.7 0.44 ± 0.14 0.057 ± 0.010 7.7 Structures K_(i) (nM) logP 2 min (% ID/g) 30 min (% ID/g) 2:30 min ratio

8.32 3.17 9.08 3.4  2.7

4.94 3.90 4.40 2.68 1.6

11.1  1.65 5.64 0.36 15.7 

3.22 2.35 7.76 2.66  2.91

The data shown in Table 1 indicates that these compounds displayed relatively high affinity for Aβ, with Ki values <10 nM, and readily entered mouse brain with uptake values >0.4% ID/g*kg (or >13% ID/g for 30 g animals). Moreover, the 30 min brain radioactivity concentration values were less than 0.1% ID/g*kg, resulting in 2 min-to-30 min concentration ratios >4. Both of the N,N-dimethyl compounds cleared less rapidly from mouse brain tissue than the N-methyl derivatives. Likewise, the only primary amine currently testable, 6-MeO-BTA-0, showed poor brain clearance. This result supports the specific use of the secondary amine (e.g., —NHCH₃) as in vivo imaging agent.

Example 2 In Vivo PET Imaging Experiments in Baboons

Large amounts of high specific activity (>2000 Ci/mmol) ¹¹C-labeled BTA-1,6-Me-BTA-1, and 6-MeO-BTA-1 were prepared for brain imaging studies in 20-30 kg anesthetized baboons using the Siemens/CTI HR+ tomograph in 3D data collection mode (nominal FWHM resolution 4.5 mm). Brain imaging studies were conducted following the intravenous injection of 3-5 mCi of radiotracer. Typical attenuation- and decay-corrected time-activity curves for a frontal cortex region of interest for each of the three compounds are shown in FIG. 6. It is noted that the absolute brain uptake of these 3 compounds in baboons is very similar to that in mice (i.e., about 0.47 to 0.39% ID/g*kg). However, the normal brain clearance rate of all three radiotracers is considerably slower in baboons compared to mice, with peak-to-60 min ratios in the range of 2.4 to 1.6 compared to ratios as high as 7.7 at 30 min in mice. The rank order of maximum brain uptake and clearance rate of the three compounds were also the same in mice and baboons. Brain uptake of the radiotracers did not appear to be blood flow-limited (FIG. 6, inset). Arterial blood samples in the baboons following the injection of all three compounds were obtained, and showed that their metabolic profiles were quite similar. Only highly polar metabolites that eluted near the void volume (4 mL) of the reverse-phase analytical HPLC column were observed in the plasma at all time points following injection, while the unmetabolized tracer eluted at about 20 mL. Typical amounts of unmetabolized injectate in plasma for all three compounds were about: 90% at 2 minutes; 35% at 30 minutes; and 20% at 60 minutes.

Transverse PET images at two levels of baboon brain following the i.v. injection of 3 mCi of [N-methyl-¹¹C]BTA-1 are shown in FIG. 7. The emission files collected 5-15 min post injection were summed to provide the images. Brain regions include: Ctx (cortex); Th1 (thalamus); Occ (occipital cortex); and Cer (cerebellum). FIG. 7 shows the uniform distribution of radioactivity throughout the brain, indicating lack of regional binding specificity in normal brain.

Example 3 Staining Amyloid Deposits in Post-Mortem AD and Tg Mouse Brain

Postmortem brain tissue sections from AD brain and an 8 month old transgenic PS1/APP mouse were stained with unlabeled BTA-1. The PS1/APP mouse model combines two human gene mutations known to cause Alzheimer's disease in a doubly transgenic mouse which deposits Aβ fibrils in amyloid plaques in the brain beginning as early as 3 months of age. Typical fluorescence micrographs are shown in FIG. 8, and the staining of amyloid plaques by BTA-1 in both postmortem AD and PS1/APP brain tissue is clearly visible. Cerebrovascular amyloid also was brightly stained (FIG. 8, right). The other characteristic neuropathological hallmark of AD brain, neurofibrillary tangles (NFT), are more faintly stained by BTA-1 in AD brain (FIG. 8, left). NFT have not been observed in transgenic mouse models of amyloid deposition.

Example 4 In Vivo Labeling and Detection of Amyloid Deposits in Transgenic Mice

Three 17 month-old PS1/APP transgenic mice were injected intraperitoneally (ip) with a single dose of 10 mg/kg of BTA-1 in a solution of DMSO, propylene glycol, and pH 7.5 PBS (v/v/v 10/45/45). Twenty-four hours later, multiphoton fluorescence microscopy was employed to obtain high resolution images in the brains of living mice using a cranial window technique. Typical in vivo images of BTA-1 in a living PS1/APP mouse are shown in FIG. 9, and plaques and cerebrovascular amyloid are clearly distinguishable. The multiphoton microscopy studies demonstrate the in vivo specificity of BTA-1 for AP in living PS1/APP transgenic mice.

Example 5 Specificity of the Inventive Compounds for Alzheimer Plaques Over Alzheimer Tangles

In order to address the relative contributions of [³H]BTA-1 binding to Aβ and tau deposits in the frontal gray of AD brain, [³H]BTA-1 binding was compared in homogenates from entorhinal cortex (EC), frontal gray and cerebellum from a typical AD brain and a Braak stage II control brain. This control brain had frequent numbers of NFT in the entorhinal cortex (FIG. 5A), but no neuritic or diffuse plaques in any area of the brain (FIG. 11C). The NFT numbers in the EC of Cntl 04 were similar to the numbers found in many AD cases (FIG. 11B). [³H]BTA-1 binding in the NFT-rich EC region of this Cntl 04 brain was no greater than [³H]BTA-1 binding in the plaque- and NFT-free cerebellum and frontal gray from this brain (FIG. 11, Table). A similar survey of these same brain areas in a Braak VI AD brain (FIG. 11, Table), showed low binding in cerebellum and EC and over ten-fold higher levels in frontal gray where there are frequent numbers of neuritic plaques (FIG. 11D). The extensive NFT pathology in the EC of the Cntl and AD brains, coupled with the low [³H]BTA-1 binding in the EC suggests that either the BTA-1 binding to NFT seen at 100 nM concentrations of BTA-1 does not occur at 1.2 nM, or that, at low nanomolar concentrations, the total absolute amount of [³H]BTA-1 binding to NFT deposits is small in comparison to the amount of [³H]BTA-1 bound to Aβ deposits in the plaques and cerebrovascular amyloid of AD frontal gray. The AD brain showed diffuse amyloid plaque deposits in the EC (FIG. 11B) which did not appear to produce significant [³H]BTA-1 binding. The frontal cortex had extensive amyloid plaques which were both compact and diffuse and were associated with high levels of [³H]BTA-1 binding (FIG. 11D and Table).

Other embodiments of the invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art from consideration of the specification and practice of the invention disclosed herein. It is intended that the specification be considered as exemplary only, with the true scope and spirit of the invention being indicated by the following claims.

As used herein and in the following claims, singular articles such as “a”, “an”, and “one” are intended to refer to singular or plural. 

1. An amyloid binding compound having a structure selected from the group consisting of:

wherein at least one of the atoms of the structure is replaced with a member selected from the group consisting of ¹³¹I, ¹²⁵I, ¹²³I, ⁷⁶Br, ⁷⁵Br, and ⁸F.
 2. The compound according to claim 1, wherein at least one of the atoms of the structure is replaced with ¹³¹I.
 3. The compound according to claim 1, wherein at least one of the atoms of the structure is replaced with ¹²⁵I.
 4. The compound according to claim 1, wherein at least one of the atoms of the structure is replaced with ¹²³I.
 5. The compound according to claim 1, wherein at least one of the atoms of the structure is replaced with ⁷⁶Br.
 6. The compound according to claim 1, wherein at least one of the atoms of the structure is replaced with ⁷⁵Br.
 7. The compound according to claim 1, wherein at least one of the atoms of the structure is replaced with ¹⁸F.
 8. A pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound according to claim 1 and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
 9. A method for detecting amyloid deposits in a subject, comprising the steps of: (a) administering a detectable quantity of a pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound according to claim 1, and (b) detecting the binding of the compound to amyloid deposit in the subject.
 10. The method according to claim 9, wherein the amyloid deposit is located in the brain of a subject.
 11. The method according to claim 9, wherein the subject is suspected of having a disease or syndrome selected from the group consisting of Alzheimer's Disease, familial Alzheimer's Disease, Down's Syndrome and homozygotes for the apolipoprotein E4 allele.
 12. The method according to claim 9, wherein the detecting is achieved by positron emission tomography.
 13. The method according to claim 9, wherein the pharmaceutical composition is administered by intravenous injection.
 14. The method according to claim 9, wherein the ratio of (i) binding of the compound to a brain area other than the cerebellum to (ii) binding of the compound to the cerebellum in the subject is compared to the ratio in a normal subject.
 15. A method of detecting amyloid deposits in biopsy or post-mortem human or animal tissue comprising the steps of (a) incubating formalin-fixed or fresh-frozen tissue with a solution of an amyloid binding compound according claim 1 to form labeled deposits and then (b) detecting the labeled deposits.
 16. The method according to claim 15, wherein the solution is composed of 25-100% ethanol, with the remainder of the solution being water, wherein the solution is saturated with the compound.
 17. The method according to claim 15, wherein the solution is composed of an aqueous buffer containing 0-50% ethanol, and wherein the solution contains 0.0001 to 100 μM of the compound.
 18. The method according to claim 15, wherein the detecting is effected by microscopic techniques selected from the group consisting of bright-field, fluorescence, laser-confocal, and cross-polarization microscopy.
 19. A method of quantifying the amount of amyloid in biopsy or post-mortem tissue comprising the steps of (a) incubating a compound according to claim 1 with a homogenate of biopsy or post-mortem tissue, (b) separating tissue-bound from tissue-unbound compound, (c) quantifying the tissue-bound compound, and (d) converting the units of tissue-bound compound to units of micrograms of amyloid per 100 mg of tissue by comparison with a standard.
 20. A method of distinguishing an Alzheimer's disease brain from a normal brain comprising the steps of: (a) obtaining tissue from (i) the cerebellum and (ii) another area of the same brain other than the cerebellum from normal subjects and from subjects suspected of having Alzheimer's disease; (b) incubating the tissues with a compound according to claim 1, whereby amyloid in the tissue binds with the compound; (c) quantifying the amount of amyloid bound to the compound; (d) calculating the ratio of the amount of amyloid in the area of the brain other than the cerebellum to the amount of amyloid in the cerebellum; (e) comparing the ratio for amount of amyloid in the tissue from normal subjects with the ratio for amount of amyloid in tissue from subjects suspected of having Alzheimer's disease; and (f) determining the presence of Alzheimer's disease if the ratio from the brain of a subject suspected of having Alzheimer's disease is above 90% of the ratios obtained from the brains of normal subjects.
 21. A method of selectively binding a compound according to claim 1 to amyloid plaques but not to neurofibrillary tangles in in vivo brain tissue which contains both, comprising administering an effective amount of the compound so that blood concentration of the administered compound remains below 10 nM in vivo. 